The koto is a long Japanese zither, most commonly associated with a 13-string form played with movable bridges and fingerpicks. The modern instrument developed from the sō, a zither introduced to Japan from the Asian mainland during the Nara period (710–794) and established in court music. For centuries the instrument was closely associated with aristocratic and courtly practice, then reached a wider public during the Edo period as new repertories and schools developed.
The Japan Tourism Agency describes the koto as Japan’s national musical instrument and notes that, until the 17th century, its music primarily reflected the tastes of the nobility and was often used in gagaku. During the Edo period (1603–1867), koto music became more popular among commoners as new schools and repertories developed. Reference-1✅
From Court Music to Edo-Period Repertory
The koto did not begin with Yatsuhashi Kengyo. Long before his lifetime, the 13-string sō had entered Japan from the Asian mainland and become part of court culture. It was used in Japanese court music, and koto playing also appears in classical literature such as The Tale of Genji.
There was also an established koto tradition before Yatsuhashi. The National Diet Library describes Tsukushi-sōkyoku as an earlier source for koto song repertory. Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614–1685), who had first been known as a shamisen musician, learned koto through Hossui, a pupil of Kenjun, the founder associated with the Tsukushi school. He then reshaped existing kumiuta, worked with danmono, and adapted musical practice in ways that helped establish a new Edo-period koto tradition. Reference-2✅
Yatsuhashi Kengyo is credited with laying important foundations for later koto music. He worked within an existing musical tradition, reshaping repertory and practice rather than creating koto music from nothing or single-handedly moving the instrument from court society to a wider public.
Yatsuhashi and the Question of “Rokudan”
Rokudan no Shirabe is one of the best-known pieces in the classical koto repertory and has long been attributed to Yatsuhashi. The National Diet Library notes, however, that the discovery of a manuscript dating from before Yatsuhashi’s birth has called the work’s origin into question. The traditional attribution remains important to koto history, but it should not be presented as uncontested authorship. Reference-3✅
Koto Beyond the Court
During the Edo period, koto music expanded beyond court-centered practice. The instrument entered the homes of members of the rising commercial class as well as the nobility, and koto study became associated with refinement and education. This change was gradual and involved teachers, schools, repertories, urban musical culture, and the professional networks of blind musicians.
Construction of the Koto
A standard koto has a long body made traditionally from paulownia (kiri) wood. Thirteen strings run along the body and pass over separate movable bridges called ji. Moving a bridge changes the vibrating length and therefore the pitch of its string, allowing the instrument to be set for different tunings before or during performance.
| Feature | Typical form |
|---|---|
| Instrument type | Long plucked zither |
| Standard strings | 13, with additional-string forms also used in modern repertory |
| Body material | Traditionally paulownia (kiri) wood |
| Bridges | Individual movable bridges (ji) placed beneath the strings |
| Traditional strings | Twisted silk |
| Modern strings | Synthetic materials are common in present-day performance |
| Plectrums | Fingerpicks (tsume) commonly worn on the right thumb, index finger, and middle finger |
Traditional Dragon Terminology
Traditional terminology describes parts of the koto through a dragon analogy. The upper surface is associated with the dragon’s back, while terms for the head and tail ends also use dragon imagery. These names are part of the instrument’s traditional vocabulary rather than a description of how the instrument produces sound.
Movable Bridges and Tuning
The movable bridges are central to koto tuning. Sliding a ji changes the effective vibrating length of one string. Players or teachers position the bridges for the selected tuning before performance and may make adjustments when changing repertory. This system allows one 13-string instrument to support several established tunings without fixed frets or a keyboard mechanism.
The bridge arrangement also distinguishes the koto from the Chinese guqin. In a comparison of koto and guqin construction, the main difference is that the guqin has seven strings without individual movable bridges. Its player changes pitch by pressing, sliding, or lightly touching strings along an unfretted surface, rather than repositioning separate bridges to establish each string’s tuning. The Chinese guzheng, which also uses movable bridges, is structurally closer to the koto than the guqin.
Tsume, Left-Hand Pitch Control, and Articulation
The strings are normally plucked with tsume, fingerpicks worn on the right hand. In common modern practice, picks are worn on the thumb, index finger, and middle finger. The left hand works on the portion of the string beyond the bridge, pressing or manipulating it to alter tension and pitch.
Oshide refers to pressing a string on the left side of its bridge to raise its pitch. Related left-hand techniques can create pitch inflection, ornament, and vibrato-like effects. Glissando, by contrast, is produced by sounding a sequence of strings and should not be treated as the same mechanism as left-hand pitch bending.
Koto technique includes individual plucks, repeated strokes, strummed figures, tremolo-like effects, glissandi, pitch bends, and left-hand ornaments. The vocabulary and execution vary by school, repertory, and period, so named techniques should not be treated as identical across every koto tradition.
Ikuta and Yamada Traditions
Two major Edo-period traditions remain especially prominent: Ikuta-ryū, associated with Kyoto and western Japan, and Yamada-ryū, associated with Edo and later Tokyo. The Japan Tourism Agency identifies both as major schools that developed during the Edo period and remain active today.
Ikuta-ryū
- Associated with Ikuta Kengyo (1656–1715), a musical descendant of Yatsuhashi’s tradition.
- Developed strongly in Kyoto and Osaka.
- Became closely connected with ensemble practice involving koto, shamisen, and voice.
- Uses its own repertory, technical conventions, plectrum traditions, and performance posture.
Yamada-ryū
- Associated with Yamada Kengyo (1757–1817).
- Developed in Edo.
- Its vocal repertory drew on musical styles familiar to Edo audiences.
- Maintains performance practices distinct from Ikuta-ryū, including differences in repertory, plectrums, and posture.
Miyagi Michio and the 17-String Koto
Miyagi Michio (1894–1956) became one of the central figures in 20th-century koto music. A performer and composer trained in the Ikuta tradition, he wrote a large body of new music and experimented with instrument design. The National Diet Library credits him with inventing a new 17-string koto, extending the lower register available to koto ensembles. Reference-4✅
His best-known work, Haru no Umi (“Spring Sea”), was composed for koto and shakuhachi and became closely associated with the New Year season in Japan. The piece also reached audiences outside Japan through recordings and arrangements, including a version that replaced the shakuhachi part with violin.
Koto and Related East Asian Zithers
The koto belongs to a wider family of East Asian long zithers. Chinese zheng traditions and the Korean gayageum share movable-bridge construction principles with the koto, but each has its own historical development, stringing, bridge design, tuning practices, repertory, and technique. The Chinese guqin is another long zither, but its bridge-free playing surface and left-hand stopping techniques place it in a different structural tradition. These instruments should not be treated as interchangeable versions of one instrument.
| Instrument | Region | General distinction |
|---|---|---|
| Koto | Japan | Standard traditional form commonly uses 13 strings, movable bridges, and right-hand fingerpicks. |
| Zheng / guzheng | China | Chinese movable-bridge zither traditions developed their own string counts, tunings, finger techniques, and repertories. |
| Gayageum | Korea | Korean movable-bridge zither tradition with its own construction, string materials, tunings, and bare-finger techniques. |
Koto Notation
Koto notation is not limited to one universal system. Traditional notation often identifies strings by number or character and may be arranged vertically, while conventions differ among schools, publishers, and periods. Modern performers may also encounter horizontally printed notation or Western staff notation, especially in newer ensemble and cross-cultural repertory.
Frequently Asked Questions
Were ordinary people forbidden from learning the koto?
The instrument was primarily associated with court and aristocratic practice for many centuries, but a blanket prohibition on ordinary people should not be assumed. During the Edo period, koto music spread more widely among commoners and the rising commercial class.
Did Yatsuhashi Kengyo create modern koto music by himself?
No. He is credited with laying important foundations for later koto music, but an established court tradition and Tsukushi-sōkyoku existed before him. His work reshaped and expanded an existing musical culture.
Did Yatsuhashi compose “Rokudan”?
The piece has long been attributed to Yatsuhashi, but the National Diet Library notes that a manuscript predating his birth has raised questions about its origin. The traditional attribution should therefore be presented with that qualification.
Why can the koto change tuning without tuning pegs for every note?
Each string rests on a movable bridge. Sliding the bridge changes the string’s vibrating length, allowing performers to set different tunings by repositioning the bridges.
Are silk strings still used?
Yes, but synthetic strings are also common. The choice depends on repertory, school, instrument, performer preference, maintenance needs, and the desired response.
What did Miyagi Michio change about the koto?
He expanded modern koto repertory, composed widely performed works, and developed new instruments, including a 17-string koto that provided a lower register for ensemble music.
